A map of nerve cell connectivity, form, and function from within a grain-of-sand-sized portion of the brain is published today, marking not just a scientific marvel but a step towards the ‘impossible’ goal of understanding the elusive origins of thought, emotion, and consciousness.
Frances Crick, who took up neuroscience after sharing the Nobel prize for co-discovering DNA’s double helix, wrote in 1979 about what he believed were the dismal prospects for understanding the detailed workings of the brain: ‘It is no use asking for the impossible, such as, say, the exact wiring diagram for a cubic millimetre of brain tissue and the way all its neurons are firing.’
But, after seven years of toil, a worldwide team of more than 150 researchers has come close to achieving Crick’s impossible feat. Today they unveil a detailed map of one cubic millimetre of mouse brain.
Reconstruction of the double helix model of DNA, originally by Francis Crick and James Watson, 1953. On display in Making the Modern World gallery at the Science Museum.
The project relied on using mice that have been geneticallymodifiedwith a protein that makes their neurons fluoresce when they are active, sothe neuroscientists could not only trace the wiring diagrams of a tiny part of the mouse brain but show how its circuits responded to stimuli.
Scientists at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Texas, began by using microscopes to record the brain activity within the one cubic millimetre portion of the visual cortex as the animal watched various movies and YouTube clips.
Afterwards, Allen Institute researchers took that same cubic millimetre of the brain and sliced it into more than 25,000 layers, each 1/400th the width of a human hair, and took high-resolution electron microscopy pictures of each slice. Finally, another team at Princeton University used artificial intelligence and machine learning to reconstruct how the cells and connections were arranged in three dimensions.
The result is the biggest wiring diagram of its kind, what one researcher called ‘an exquisite forest,’ containing more than 200,000 cells, an estimated four kilometres of axons (the branches that reach out to other cells) and 523 million synapses (the connection points between cells) and, when combined with the recordings of brain activity, it can also reveal the neurons at work as they process visual information.
Andreas Tolias, who worked on this project at both Baylor College of Medicine and Stanford University, used functional data measuring the activity of neurons in the visual cortex to build what is called a ‘foundation model’, where an AI could be trained—for instance, using Mad Max clips. This foundation model was then used to create a ‘digital twin’ to predict how a particular neuron would respond when shown stimuli it had not been trained on, such as novel videos, static images, moving dots, and so on.
‘A foundation model is built from many experiments across multiple mice,’ said Tolias. ‘We can then use this model to create digital twins of individual mice and neurons.’
The team found that when neurons responded reliably to visual stimuli, the twin was able to predict their reactions even to entirely new kinds of stimulus – demonstrating the power of this approach to build accurate functional models of the brain. Building brain foundation models and digital twins on the behaviour of actual mouse brain tissue opens the possibility of directly comparing biological and artificial intelligence – comparisons that could prove valuable for advancing both fields.
The mouse brain mapping project, which is called MICrONS (Machine Intelligence from Cortical Networks), is described in ten studies published today in the Nature family of journals, along with 1.6 petabytes of data (equivalent to 22 years of non-stop HD videos). The efforts mark ‘a watershed moment for neuroscience, comparable to the Human Genome Project in their transformative potential,’ says David Markowitz, who coordinated this work.
One surprising finding by Casey Schneider-Mizell of the Allen and colleagues was the discovery of a more sophisticated kind of inhibition within the brain. Scientists previously thought of inhibitory cells as suppressing the activity of nearby nerve cells, but the study showed they can be highly selective about which cells they target.
Understanding the brain’s form and function down to the level of individual brain cells has implications for understanding disorders like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, autism, and schizophrenia that involve disruptions in neural communication.Nuno da Costa of the Allen Institute says: ‘We are describing a kind of Google map or blueprint of this grain of sand. In the future, we can use this to compare the brain wiring in a healthy mouse to the brain wiring in a model of disease.’
He adds that, when it comes to extending the work, the US National Institutes of Health, NIH, is funding several efforts to show the feasibility over the next four years, before tackling the entire mouse brain. ‘We could already show you a section of a hemisphere of a mouse (centimetre size) imaged at the same resolution as the millimetre scale MICrONS dataset,’ he says.
For the human brain, the NIH supports a related programme with a more modest objective of mapping single cells and their projections.
Forrest Collman of the Allen comments that the human brain is about 1,300 times larger than a mouse brain. ‘There are even larger technical, economic and ethical problems with doing a whole human brain in this way, and most scientists do not think this is something practical to pursue any time soon,’ he says. ‘On the other hand,’ he adds, ‘small pieces of human brain can be examined with this method and certain aspects can be comparedin order to understand how general the features are we are learning about mouse brains.’
The current generation of artificial intelligence, which is trained ondatato learn, is very loosely modelled on the connectivity of the brain. But, says Collman, many aspects of biology are absent fromcontemporary AI models: ‘This includes the vast diversity of cell types and the myriad rules and principles that shape the plasticity of synapses in our brains.’
Today’s detailed view of the mouse brain provides a glimpse of the Byzantinecomplexity of the cell types and their connections, which might inspire new kinds of AI. But he adds: ‘Clearly though, at some level, we still have a lot to learn about how natural intelligence functions and learns so efficiently, quickly and with so little data compared to present day AI systems.’
The Future of Biotechnology: Unlocking the Secrets of Bacterial Defense
In recent years, gene editing and other biotechnology tools have revolutionized the field of medicine and agriculture. These advancements have been made possible by studying the intricate mechanisms of bacteria fighting off viral invaders. However, scientists have only scratched the surface of this ancient arms race, and the potential future trends in this area are both exciting and promising.
Understanding the Bacterial Defense System
At its core, the bacterial defense system is a complex and precise mechanism that allows bacteria to detect and destroy invading viruses. This defense system, known as CRISPR-Cas, has gained widespread attention for its applications in gene editing. CRISPR-Cas allows scientists to selectively edit genes, which holds immense potential for treating genetic diseases and developing genetically modified crops.
Currently, most research focuses on the Type II CRISPR-Cas system, which utilizes the Cas9 protein. However, there are numerous other types of CRISPR-Cas systems that scientists are just beginning to explore. These alternative systems may offer unique advantages and capabilities, expanding the possibilities of gene editing and biotechnology even further.
Potential Future Trends
As our understanding of bacterial defense mechanisms continues to evolve, several potential future trends can be identified:
Refinement and Improvement of Existing CRISPR-Cas Systems: Scientists will continue to refine and optimize the current CRISPR-Cas systems, making them more efficient and precise. This ongoing improvement will enhance the accuracy of gene editing techniques and reduce off-target effects.
Exploration of Alternative CRISPR-Cas Systems: Researchers will delve into other types of CRISPR-Cas systems, such as Type I and Type III, to uncover their unique functions and applications. These alternative systems may offer greater versatility and open up new avenues for genetic manipulation.
Integration of Artificial Intelligence: The combination of biotechnology and artificial intelligence holds great promise. AI algorithms can assist in designing more effective guide RNA sequences, predicting off-target effects, and accelerating the discovery of novel CRISPR-Cas systems.
Advanced Biotechnology Applications: With a deeper understanding of bacterial defense, scientists will develop innovative applications beyond gene editing. This may include the creation of novel antibiotics, bioremediation methods, and precision agriculture techniques.
Predictions and Recommendations
Based on these potential future trends, several predictions and recommendations can be made for the biotechnology industry:
Increased collaboration and interdisciplinary research: Given the complexity of bacterial defense mechanisms, collaboration between biologists, geneticists, computer scientists, and other experts will be crucial. Establishing interdisciplinary teams will foster innovation and accelerate breakthroughs in the field.
Investment in education and training: As the field of biotechnology evolves, it is crucial to invest in the education and training of scientists and technicians. Ensuring that professionals have the necessary skills and knowledge will drive progress and maintain a skilled workforce.
Ethical considerations and regulations: With the potential of powerful gene editing techniques, ethical considerations and regulations must be prioritized. An open dialogue among scientists, policymakers, and the public is necessary to establish guidelines and ensure responsible use of these technologies.
In conclusion, the future of biotechnology is closely intertwined with our understanding of bacterial defense mechanisms. The ongoing unraveling of this ancient arms race promises exciting advancements in gene editing, agriculture, medicine, and more. However, it is essential to proceed with caution, taking into account ethical considerations and fostering collaboration to maximize the potential benefits of these technologies while minimizing the risks.
Reference: “Gene editing and many other useful biotechnology tools came from studies of bacteria fighting off viral invaders. But scientists have only begun to unlock the secrets of this ancient arms race.” – (Nature, Published online: 09 April 2025; doi:10.1038/d41586-025-01065-4)
Bradford-based stop motion filmmaker Arfaan Amini turned a childhood fascination with action figures into a career working with major toy brands. Now, as part of the Bradford Digital Creatives project, he’s bringing his expertise into Bradford schools to inspire young people to find their own creative passions.
What first drew you to digital arts?
My passion for animation was something I discovered unexpectedly in my late 20s. As a child, I spent countless hours creating elaborate stories with action figures, completely unaware that this was a form of storytelling and creativity. When I stumbled upon stop motion, I found the perfect medium to bring my childhood passion to life—allowing me to animate my action figures and turn my stories into moving art.
As I delved deeper into the world of animation, I developed an appetite for learning more about VFX and the digital side of animation. The ability to incorporate the latest technology into my work has opened up endless possibilities, making my visual art more dynamic and immersive. Every new technique I explore pushes me to elevate my storytelling and bring my creative visions to life in more exciting ways.
Why were you interested in being part of the Bradford Digital Creatives project?
Growing up, I had no idea I possessed the enthusiasm and creativity for this field! Through the Digital Creatives project, I want to inspire others who might have the same passion but risk going through life without ever realising their creative potential. By learning new skills we are giving the students a better chance of finding their ‘thing’—the ‘thing’ that excites them, that makes them want to dive deeper into that specific field, that really changes their inner dialogue and hopefully allows them to follow their interest into a career.
What does a typical workshop look like?
We take a hands-on approach, giving students the chance to experience different production roles—puppeteer, director, photographer—so they understand the collaborative nature of stop motion. In one session, we animated Bradford’s Town Hall using a simple but effective set made from polystyrene blocks. Students learned the technical aspects of stop motion, from frame-by-frame shooting to post-production techniques like keying out backgrounds in Photoshop. We even incorporated AI tools to help them select the best images for their final edit.
Seeing students go from initial uncertainty to complete engagement is the most rewarding part. Once they understand how stop motion works, they become completely immersed—generating their own ideas, experimenting with techniques, and taking real pride in their work.
What do you hope students take away from working with you?
Beyond technical skills, I want them to understand that creativity is as much about the process as the end product. Stop motion, for example, requires patience and persistence—it can feel repetitive, but the sense of accomplishment at the end makes it worthwhile.
NASA’s Artemis program aims to send astronauts to the Moon to conduct scientific research, promote economic benefits, and lay the groundwork for future crewed missions to Mars. The upcoming Artemis II mission will be the first one with crew, testing the capabilities of the Space Launch System (SLS) and Orion spacecraft. This article will analyze potential future trends related to space exploration and make unique predictions and recommendations for the industry.
1. Longer Duration Missions
Artemis II will confirm the readiness of Orion’s critical life support systems for longer duration missions. This indicates that future missions will likely involve longer stays on the Moon and possibly beyond. With advancements in technology and the understanding of human space travel, astronauts may spend months or even years in space, conducting in-depth research and experiments.
2. In-Space Demonstrations and Operations
The Artemis II mission will incorporate in-space demonstrations and operations to fine-tune spacecraft handling and gather valuable operational experience. Future missions will continue to focus on conducting complex maneuvers, proximity operations, and docking, preparing for the establishment of a Lunar Gateway station. These activities will play a crucial role in developing the necessary infrastructure for sustained human presence on the Moon.
3. Improved Life Support Systems
The assessment of life support systems during Artemis II will provide valuable data on their performance in different scenarios, including exercise and sleep periods. This data will contribute to the development of more advanced life support systems, ensuring the well-being and safety of astronauts during extended missions. Technologies that improve air generation and carbon dioxide removal will be crucial for future crewed missions to the Moon and Mars.
4. Enhanced Communication and Navigation
Orion’s checkout of communication and navigation systems during its elliptical orbit will highlight the reliance on the Deep Space Network for communication with astronauts and command of the spacecraft. As missions move farther away from Earth, and particularly during Mars missions, the development of reliable, high-bandwidth communication systems will be essential. Advances in quantum communication and deep space networking will enable more efficient and secure data transmission.
5. Fuel-Efficient Trajectories
Artemis II’s trajectory relies on the Earth-Moon gravity field to naturally pull Orion back to Earth, eliminating the need for additional propulsion. This fuel-efficient approach will likely be used in future missions, reducing the reliance on costly propellant and allowing for longer-duration missions. By harnessing gravitational forces, spacecraft can achieve significant distances while conserving resources for critical maneuvers.
Predictions
1. The Artemis program will successfully establish a sustainable presence on the Moon, enabling astronauts to conduct extensive research and preparations for future missions to Mars.
2. Advancements in life support systems will alleviate some of the challenges associated with long-duration space travel, making extended missions to Mars a viable possibility.
3. Collaborations between space agencies and commercial entities will accelerate the pace of innovation and open up opportunities for new players in the space industry.
4. The increased presence on the Moon will lead to the discovery of valuable resources, such as water ice, which could be utilized for life support and rocket propellant production, further supporting future exploration efforts.
5. The development of autonomous spacecraft and robotics will play a crucial role in enabling long-duration missions, reducing the dependence on human crew for routine operations and maintenance.
Recommendations
1. Increase international collaboration: Encouraging partnerships between space agencies and international organizations will foster knowledge sharing, resource pooling, and technology development, ultimately advancing space exploration efforts.
2. Invest in research and development: Allocating resources to research and development will lead to breakthroughs in advanced propulsion systems, life support technologies, and materials science, enhancing the capabilities and sustainability of future space missions.
3. Foster public-private partnerships: Collaborating with commercial entities will bring in innovative ideas, new technologies, and cost-effective solutions. Government agencies should provide incentives and support for private companies to participate in space exploration initiatives.
4. Prioritize space debris mitigation: As space exploration activities increase, the risk of space debris collisions also rises. Implementing strict regulations and guidelines for space debris mitigation is crucial to ensure the long-term sustainability of space exploration.
5. Promote STEM education: To meet the growing demand for skilled professionals in the space industry, education initiatives should focus on promoting STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education from a young age. Encouraging young minds to pursue careers in space science and engineering will contribute to the industry’s growth and innovation.
Conclusion
The Artemis II mission marks an important step toward sustained human presence on the Moon and eventual crewed missions to Mars. Future trends in space exploration will involve longer missions, improvements in life support systems, enhanced communication and navigation capabilities, fuel-efficient trajectories, and increased international collaboration. By incorporating these predictions and recommendations, the industry can overcome challenges and pave the way for humanity’s continued exploration of space.
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References:
– NASA’s Artemis Program: https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/
– NASA Artemis II Press Kit: https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-invites-public-to-virtual-send-off-for-artemis-i-moon-mission
The US is against the world on sustainable development
Published online: 08 April 2025
Nature, doi:10.1038/d41586-025-01041-y
For years, sustainable development has been a global objective, with countries around the world working towards implementing environmentally-friendly practices and policies to ensure a better future. However, in recent times, the United States seems to be going against the tide, as it takes a stance that is in opposition to sustainable development efforts.
Key Points
The United States has been vocal about its skepticism towards climate change and environmental concerns, leading to a lack of support for global sustainability initiatives.
The US has withdrawn from key international climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, which aimed to limit global warming and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Domestically, the US government has rolled back environmental regulations and promoted the expansion of industries with high carbon footprints, such as coal and oil.
While some states and cities within the US have been proactive in taking sustainable actions, the overall national stance is hindering progress.
The Future Trends: Potential Scenarios
The US’s opposition to sustainable development raises significant concerns about the future of global environmental efforts. Several potential future scenarios could emerge in light of this situation:
Isolation and Resistance: The US may face increasing isolation on the international stage, as other countries push forward with sustainable development initiatives. This could lead to trade barriers, strained diplomatic relationships, and limited cooperation on global challenges.
Rise of Alternative Leadership: In the absence of US leadership on sustainability, other countries and regions may step up to take the lead. The European Union, China, and India have already shown commitment to sustainable development, and they could strengthen their positions as global leaders in this area.
Technological Innovation: Without government support, sustainable innovation in the US might shift from the public to the private sector. Companies and entrepreneurs could take the lead in developing clean technologies, renewable energy, and sustainable practices, potentially driving a wave of innovation.
Local and State Initiatives: As the national government neglects sustainable development, individuals, communities, and local governments may take matters into their own hands. Grassroots movements, advocacy organizations, and state-level sustainability initiatives could gain prominence, pushing for change from the bottom up.
Predictions and Recommendations
Despite the challenging reality presented by the US’s opposition to sustainable development, there are still predictions and recommendations worth considering:
Increased Collaboration: Other countries should intensify collaboration amongst themselves, bypassing the US as needed, to strengthen global sustainability efforts. Joint research initiatives, funding mechanisms, and sharing best practices can help maintain momentum and progress.
Engagement with the Private Sector: Governments, organizations, and investors worldwide should engage with US businesses and entrepreneurs who are committed to sustainable practices. By supporting and collaborating with these companies, the international community can promote sustainable innovation and foster change from within the US.
Educational and Awareness Campaigns: Raising global awareness about the importance of sustainability is crucial for driving change. Governments, NGOs, and educational institutions should invest in campaigns to educate citizens and highlight the benefits and urgency of sustainable development. By fostering a global environmentally-conscious mindset, the international community can create a demand for sustainable solutions.
Support for Local Initiatives: Individual efforts and local sustainability initiatives should be encouraged and supported. Governments and organizations can provide resources, funding, and incentives to local communities, enabling them to implement sustainable practices and set examples for others to follow.
Reference: Nature. (2025, April 8). The US is against the world on sustainable development. doi:10.1038/d41586-025-01041-y
In the new documentary Pauline Black: A 2-Tone Story, the frontwoman of the Ska revival band The Selecter describes the struggles she has faced throughout her life and career. On 28 March 2025, we screened the film at Pictureville Cinema, followed by a Q&A with Pauline—offering the audience an insightful view into the complex relationships between race, gender and the music industry.
Pauline Black
If you were to sum up the defining experiences of Pauline’s life in one phrase, it would be ‘odd one out’. She was adopted as a baby and grew up in Romford, Essex, where she was one of the only people of colour in her community, and later she became one of the only women in the male-dominated two-tone music scene. The documentary explores these experiences of being different, particularly the racism and abuse that she faced in her youth—some members of her own family supported the National Front, while others viewed her as a ‘colonial project’ and refused to acknowledge her Blackness. Pauline describes the isolation she felt in not knowing any other Black people, and the film chronicles her attempts to reconnect with her biological parents in order to learn more about herself and her cultural background.
The film is unflinching and raw—at one point Pauline breaks down in tears as she describes a traumatic episode from her childhood, when she was sexually assaulted by a family friend. In the Q&A, Pauline shared that the decision to film the talking heads once and forgo retakes was deliberate, as she wanted to convey her unfiltered emotions. The result is an authentic and powerful portrayal of the effect of reliving memories.
A monumental turning point in Pauline’s life, and the film, comes when she moves out of the stifling environment of Essex and travels to Coventry to attend university. She describes an instant feeling of belonging in the multicultural city, where the booming car industry had attracted many immigrants. The audience sees Pauline begin to blossom as she is finally able to explore her identity and express herself, and her performances at local pubs led to her being invited to join The Selecter by songwriter Neol Davies.
The film follows the rise of the band after Pauline added the missing piece to their music, delivering the socially conscious lyrics with her impassioned, powerful vocals. However, between the highs of appearing on Top of the Pops and touring across the country, Pauline doesn’t shy away from the lows. In the overwhelmingly male world of two-tone she was often treated as an afterthought, and it was necessary for her to convey power through her vocals and androgynous style to avoid being spoken over.
The Selecter’s demise began when Pauline was physically assaulted by a bandmate who was enraged by her refusal to be submissive simply because she was a woman, and was compounded by the underwhelming response to their second album. However brief their stardom, the band made a huge impact on the musical landscape, and Pauline became an enduring icon as the first ever Rude Girl, with her distinctive vocals and style inspiring fans for generations. The film meditates on the adversity that she faced as a mixed-race woman in the music industry, and it clearly resonated with the audience, who shared some of their own experiences of racism and sexism during the Q&A session.
At the heart of the film is a fascinating story of reconnecting with one’s heritage, and the denouement of the film shows Pauline finally meeting her birth mother and learning the identity of her father, creating a compelling narrative arc that ends with the modern-day Pauline, who is self-assured, comfortable in her identity and refreshingly honest and open about the positives and negatives from her life. The film manages to simultaneously be cinematic and intimate, and the diversity of the talking heads and ska soundtrack echo the film’s ethos of multiculturalism without detracting from the personal nature of Pauline’s story.
